Hardly had the first Japanese bullets struck the Russian ships at
Port Arthur and Chemulpo when they immediately echoed back in "popular
prints." Hundreds and thousands of colorful prints soon appeared in all
the remote corners of Russia, leaving newspapers and official
information far behind. Before people had time to understand well who
was fighting with whom and what the mobilization was for, peasants and
towns-people grew excited over pictures of thousands of Japanese in
bright blue uniforms or as tiny weaklings smashed by huge fists of
smart Russian Cossacks and sailors.
Images of Japanese soldiers pushed images of graceful geishas and
cherry blossoms into the background. This new image of Japan absorbed
all the biting irony and humor, all the ardor of popular indignation,
all the creativeness of lubok traditions and contributed to the
popularity of the war among the masses, at least during its first
months while the atrocities and hardships were not yet great and the
ineptitude of the Russian command was not yet obvious. The overall
number of "popular prints" of the Russo-Japanese War was more than
three hundred, and many pictures were re-printed thousands of times.
However, lubok prints appeared only during the first half a
year of the war. As soon as the Japanese won one victory after another
(the destruction by a mine of the flagship Petropavlovsk was
followed by the defeats at Tyurenchen and Nanshan and the siege of Port
Arthur began), "popular prints" first became more serious, but then
lapsed into silence. The topics were soon exhausted. The last print The
Battle at Shakhe and the Seizure of Liaoyan was censored on 18
October 1904 and contains no commentaries at all.
"Popular prints" of the Russo-Japanese War may be tentatively
classified into three categories: allegoric, realistic and satirical.
1. Allegoric prints.
We may call allegoric prints those which convey images of war in
symbolic terms, using mainly symbols derived from Russian history and
Orthodox Christianity to build up the spirit of nationalism and to
evoke anti-Japanese feelings. From the time of Peter I, Russia's
self-image was one of a great military power. This image was enhanced
throughout the 18th and 19th centuries due to successful wars against
the Turks and Napoleon. In particular, the Patriotic War of 1812 was an
important step in the development of the Russian national
consciousness, as Russia demonstrated that it was the only European
state able to defeat the mighty Napoleon. The Balkan War of 1877-78 was
fought under the slogan of Pan-Slavism, i.e. unification of all the
Slavs under Russian leadership, and was regarded in Russia as the
liberation of "brother-Slavs" from the "unfaithful" Turks. These ideas
stimulated the development of the Slavic orientation in the Russian
national consciousness. It is this self-image of Russia that helps
explain the contents and the character of the 1904 "popular prints."
The print On the War of Russia with Japan (picture No. 1) belongs to the category of
allegoric prints and contains the official Russian interpretation of
the war. On the front-right side of the picture, we see a woman
standing on what may be assumed to be the shores of Port Arthur's
harbor. She is dressed in some mixture of clothing of the mediaeval
Russian czars and knights. Her mantle and skirt are heavily decorated
with the double eagle, the coat of arms of the Russian Empire. An icon,
an attribute of the Orthodox faith, is fixed to her breast. Another
double eagle is sitting on the woman's shoulder. She holds an olive
branch, a symbol of peace. A white angel is floating over her head. Her
sword is sheathed and her posture is full of dignity and pride.
On the left back side of the picture we see a dragon-like monster.
He bares big sharp teeth. His awful jaw disgorges lightning. He has
huge stretched forward paws with claws and protruding wings of enormous
size. Flames are raging behind him. However, in spite of his terrifying
attributes, quite appropriate to the "diabolic image of the enemy," he
does not look terribly frightening and resembles a stupid eight-headed
monster-serpent (zmei-gorynych) from Russian fairy tales who is
supposed to be defeated by a valorous hero.
The woman symbolizes Russia as the herald of peace. This allegoric
representation resembles much the so called "Apotheosis," a large
figure of Russia surrounded by its minorities which used to be an
essential final part of many buffooneries or farces performed for the
entertainment of the common people. The dragon-like monster represents
here the aggressive intentions of Japan. However, the main message,
also expressed in the text, is not only to stress the menace coming
from Japan. It is rather to emphasize the peaceful intentions of
Russia, the idea that the Christian faith and Russia's glorious martial
past would ensure her victory. The text blames Japan for its
treacherous behavior - a surprise attack on Port Arthur - and predicts
that it will be punished by God. Although prior to the Second Hague
Peace Conference of 1907 there existed no rule of international law
requiring a declaration of war before the opening of hostilities,11 the Japanese attack
on Port Arthur was regarded by the Russians as inappropriate behavior
for an "honest warrior."12
Since then the idea that Japan is an evil and treacherous country has
been repeated over and over again in various prints, cartoons and
articles.
In picture No. 2The Russian
Hero at the East: The Hero and Yellow Pygmies we see a Russian
epic knight riding a huge white horse, a typical lubok image of
a hero - Iliia Muromets or Eruslan Lazarevich. He occupies the central
part of the picture and is very large in comparison with the Japanese
soldiers surrounding him. While the Russian knight is dressed in
medieval clothes and is armed with a lance, the Japanese have modern
uniforms and weapons. The message is evident: the Russian national
spirit is stronger than modern technology.
This print claims that the spiritual differences between the
Russians and the Japanese are based on their racial differences. The
Japanese are identified here with the Mongols, people of the yellow
race known in Russia for their brutality. The Mongols conquered Russia
in the 13th century, and their cruel yoke lasted for two and a half
centuries. It is usually assumed that since that time the Russian
people (= the Slavs) have hated all the people of the yellow race and
had a feeling of disgust towards all those with slant eyes and yellow
skin. In reality, however, Mongol blood, probably, runs in the veins of
most Russians, and the above mentioned attitude should be classified
rather as an invention of the 19th century intellectuals of pro-Slavic
orientation. It is interesting that another influential group of
Russian philosophers of the time, the Eurasianists, on the contrary,
was proud to view Russia as "the legacy of Genghis Khan."13
It is the moral superiority of Russia over Japan that is
accentuated in allegoric "popular prints." This is not just the
opposition between a good Self and a wicked Other typical to all
enmification cases. The Russian spiritual tradition, based on Orthodox
Christianity, was obsessed with the "search for the right morality,"
and always acknowledged the priority of moral values at the expense of
practical issues. Moral victory, i.e. the display of heroism, courage
or dignity, could even be regarded as more important than the real
outcome of a battle. Thus, a popular Russia song glorifying the heroic
and tragic death of the Variag (see the explanation to picture No. 4 below) said: "No quarter
for the proud Variag - No one asks for mercy!"
2. Realistic prints
Realistic prints were meant to convey information from the war
theater as closely as possible to reality. Indeed, many correspondents
were dispatched to the Far East. Among them were famous photographers
V. Bulla and V. Taburin. However, their photos could not be delivered
quickly to the Western part of Russia. It usually took about a month
and a half for a train to cross Siberia, while some sort of graphic
information was required more urgently. The way out was found in
drawing pictures which were stylistically close to photos. They were
both published in magazines and reproduced as separate sheets of
prints. The influence of historical and battle painters such as Vasilii
Surikov and Vasilii Vereshchagin, himself a participant in the war, is
evident here.14
Some realistic prints depict events close to the facts of the war;
however, many convey rather the spirit of war, the impressive and
terrifying battle scenes, the sufferings of people. However, lubki
prints did not have to convey the truth. While portraying fighting with
the Japanese, the author of the print might well have in mind not the
real event, but another "popular print," for example A Panorama of
the Chesmenskaia Battle. One and the same event, even one of minor
importance, when the Russians managed to achieve some success or
displayed heroism, was repeated in several prints. The heroic deed of
the cruiser Variag, the repulse of the first Japanese attacks on Port
Arthur, some episodes of confrontation on the Yalu river, the sinking
of a Japanese cruiser - all this was quickly grasped by the printing
press and spread in colorful sheets around Russia, inspiring people to
the war effort.
The absence of precise information about the events at the remote
Far Eastern battlefield, exaggerated reports about the heroic deeds of
the Russians and, of course, expectations of the inevitable victory
over the Japanese can well be seen in the print The Defeat of a
Japanese Cruiser (picture No. 3). It
represents the first night attack of the Japanese on Port Arthur and
had already been approved by the censorship committee on the fifth day
after the attack. As is well known, the Japanese activities were very
successful. Two Russian battleships and one cruiser were badly damaged,
14 people were killed and 71 wounded. Though the Japanese also had some
losses, the Russians had hardly any precise information. Rumors and
imagination created a picture of a Japanese cruiser going to the bottom.15 Sources of
information the authors of the print refer to are a telegram from Paris
to the newspaper Novoe Vremia "confirmed by a report of a
merchantship which came to Tientsin from Japan." On the left side of
the picture, a Russian battleship with the Andreevskii flag is steadily
standing on the water in spite of bombs, mines and waves. On the
contrary, a Japanese cruiser is all in flames and about to sink. No one
in Russia could have thought at that moment that by June 1904 the
Russian Pacific Fleet would be blocked in the Port Arthur harbor, that
on the eve of the year 1905 Port Arthur would capitulate, or that the
Baltic Fleet would be completely destroyed on 27 May 1905.
Every Russian schoolboy or schoolgirl knows the story of the
Variag, which became the first victim of the war in the unequal battle
with the Japanese. The Russians did not surrender, but opened the
Kingston valves and sank their ship so as not to let the enemy get the
booty. Sailors and officers took refuge on foreign ships stationed in
the same harbor Chemulpo. It is this particular moment that we see in
the print Vanquished, Destroyed but not Surrendered (picture No. 4). The Variag is
going down to the bottom while the Russian crew is boarding the French
cruiser Pascal. This picture strongly bares traces of a photo, but it
was probably the only one which depicted events so realistic.
Two messages stand out here: glorification of the Russian heroism
and morale, and the international solidarity of the European countries
against the Japanese. The text at the bottom of the print says:
In a hot and unequal battle our sailors demonstrated unprecedented
energy. Three times fires in riggings were put out. Wounded crew
members were quickly replaced by others. Slot-holes were repaired on
the spot. Both sides of the cruiser were completely damaged, guns
destroyed... The foreigners were deeply touched by the heroism of the
Russians. Many of them cried seeing the Russian ships going to a
certain death. When the Russians passed the foreign ships targeting the
port exit, their crews lined up along the decks. Russians were shouting
"hurrah!" and singing the national anthem.
Thus, Russian heroism, bravery and courage are extolled to
emphasize that the Japanese are no peers to the Russians in an honest
battle. The Japanese may win only by resort to conniving or due to
their numerical superiority in manpower. There is no place for
"barbarian Asians" in the international club of the civilized nations,
claims this print.
The initiative in the war belonged to the Japanese nearly
throughout the whole campaign while the Russians were passive.
Realistic prints indirectly betrayed the ineptitude and passivity of
the Russians. In the texts the Japanese are constantly "on the move":
they are "landing," "building fortifications," "pushing by force" and
"attacking," while the Russian are "observing," "settling down,"
"keeping calm," "repulsing attacks." However, the portrayal of war
required battle-scenes where the Russians would not have been only on
the defensive. So, stories had to be invented. For example, the text to
the picture No. 5 The Repulse of a
Japanese Landing by the Russians (censored on 17 (30)16 April 1904) said:
The newspaper Standard telegraphed: "The Japanese fleet
under the command of general Togo escorted a significant number of the
Japanese merchant transport to the coast west of the Yalu and the
Japanese landed." However, the Japanese did not notice a Russian
detachment in the nearby ambush. When 12,000 of the Japanese landed,
the Russians went out of the ambush, attacked the Japanese unawares,
inflicted serious casualties and pushed them out.
It is likely that the landing of the First Japanese Army headed by
general Kuroki 125 km west of the Yalu is referred to here. The
sparseness and the insufficient number of the Russian army allowed the
Japanese to realize their plans successfully: by 10 (23) April Kuroki's
army of 45,000 completed their concentration on the left bank of the
Yalu. Sporadic Russian attacks occurred though, and it is probably one
of them which is represented here.
This print is very colorful. Yellow fur coats of the Russian
soldiers in red papakhas contrast well with the bright blue Japanese
uniforms. We see faces of the Russians distorted by fear and anger. Not
so much are they attacking, but rather carrying away the wounded and
dead, who are potrayed as young people. The Japanese in the back-side
of the print move like a huge crowd, their strength doubled by the
presence of battleships. This print, in spite of the artist's intention
to show the success of the Russian army, conveys the horror and the
inhumanity of war, emphasizing again the aggressiveness and the cruelty
of the Japanese.
3. Satirical prints
It is the satirical "popular prints" though, where the popular
humor is most revealed, that provide us with the most information about
the Russian images of the Japanese enemy and Self. Here, indeed, one
can see grotesque scenes of the Japanese in defeat and in panic, bold
attacks of Cossacks and sailors, or the vicissitudes of relations with
the US and England. At the beginning of the war when expectations about
victory were strong, satirical "popular prints" were bold and insolent,
even arrogant. They made fun of the cowardliness and weakness of the
Russian adversary, attributing to him stupidity and greed, ridiculing
his physical height, skin color and facial features. It seemed that
"popular prints" knew no restraint. Their mockery may seem to us crude
and primitive, their humor flat and gaudy. But it was for these very
features that "popular prints" were appreciated by the ordinary Russian
folk.
Most typical are the prints The Enemy is Terrible but God is
Benevolent (picture No. 6) and
Cossack Petrukha (picture No. 7). In
picture No. 6 we see a huge figure of
a Russian fellow in boots, mittens and a fur-cap striding across the
Sea of Japan, one boot in Korea, another already close to Japan, with
Manchuria left far behind. Small Japanese ships turn over as soon as he
steps into the sea. The Japanese are hastily running away. America,
England and China are stunned by the victorious march of the Russian.
The most striking feature of the picture is the contrast between
the huge size of the Russian giant and the miniature size of the
Japanese. Like Gulliver among the Lilliputians, he is holding one bunch
of Japanese in his fist, another bunch is stuck behind his sash, and
still other behind the top of his boot. The text written in verse is
abundant in derogatory attributes regarding the Japanese. They are
"yellow-skinned," "slant-eyed," "foul," "snub-nosed," etc. One may only
wonder how these tiny people could become a fearful enemy and why they
cannot be defeated without God's benevolence.
In the print Cossack Petrukha (picture
No. 7) a huge Russian Cossack is easily screwing off the legs of
Japanese soldiers booted in well buttoned white boots with straw soles,
an invention of the Japanese army of the time. For some reason,
probably because the Russian army always suffered from the lack of
ammunition and clothing, these neat buttoned boots especially
fascinated the prints' painters. We see another Japanese soldier
pierced by a lance. The caption maintains that it is not even necessary
to kick the Japanese; they may just as easily be thrown right and left.
One of the "popular prints," The Martial Song of the Russian Sailors,
directly maintained "We'll twist your cheeks off without any lead or
gun - just by a fist blow." The same conventional Russian military
icon, the courageous Cossack, is repeated in nearly the same manner
throughout many prints. He is whipping with a lash, pulling by the ear
(which becomes as large as a donkey's), or killing the Japanese by a
flick of his little finger. These images symbolized the physical
weakness, ineptitude or the stupidity of the Russian adversary.
It was generally assumed that Russian's enemies were very much
afraid of Cossacks since the time of the war with Prussia (1759-1762).
Thus, "popular prints" and cartoons of 1812 portrayed the French
falling down in a dead faint on hearing the word koza (goat)
which sounded to them similar to Cossack.17 However, there was a great
discrepancy between the reality and this image of a Cossack. The
Russian Cossack troops were armed in an outdated fashion with sabers
and lances. The Cossacks were not to live up to their reputation, being
of an inferior standard in comparison with European cavalry. The
special terms of employment of Cossacks, whereby they were responsible
for the provision of their horse, uniform and equipment, meant that
these soldiers were not going to expose these items to unnecessary
risk, particularly when compensation was paltry. In Russia itself,
Cossack troops, known for their loyalty, were often used by police to
suppress demonstrations of dissidence and did not enjoy much love of
the population. Cossacks were hardy, brave and obedient soldiers, but
they lacked education and sophistication, flair and intuition. While
the Russians laughed at the Japanese cavalry and artillery, this fueled
a major under-appraisal of Japanese martial qualities.
In reality the Japanese army was superior to the Russian army in
many respects. It was equipped with the most modern technology;
battleships and cruisers were mainly Britain built. Officers were
educated and civilized and enjoyed the confidence of their soldiers.
The logistic support was also superb.
Gradually and reluctantly, as the war proceeded, Japan's military
achievements had to be appreciated. In a book Talks about a Japanese
published in June 1904 and written in a form of a conversation between
an old soldier and a young recruit, thus imitating the common people's
style, the Japanese army was described in the following way:
[The Japanese] are good seamen, they understand this
business... It is astonishing that this army has been built in 20-30
years. During the Chinese campaign a Japanese did not lag behind us. He
strains himself to the utmost, but pushes forward, doesn't want to show
he is worse than others... [Though] they lack bravery, the infantry
fights well. Artillery and cavalry are worse than Russian.18
However, Russians tended to emphasize the "unnatural," inhuman
qualities of the Japanese, rather than their mastery or craft in
warfare. One book of the time designed for popular consumption said:
Mother-Russia had many adversaries in her life, but it is
for the first time she meets one like the Japanese... Turks in
comparison with the Japanese are children. One has to wake a Turk up,
make him take the rifle - he is a careless and indifferent enemy. A
Chinese is even more simple... A Japanese, in a word, is an Asian; he
is much more cunning than a Chinese and very able in night deeds: he is
like an owl in the night, sees everything and is able to fight.19
Another Russian conventional military icon was the valiant and
smart sailor. We see him, for example, at the print How a Russian
Sailor Cut off the Japanese Nose (picture
No. 8). This humorous story was based on a true fact. On 1 (14)
March the Czar nominated Vice-Admiral Makarov as the Commander-in-Chief
of the Russian Pacific fleet. He was a good scholar, an experienced
warrior, an active and courageous commander, respected even by the
Japanese. During the period until his tragic death on 31 March (12
April) the Russian fleet completely changed its passive tactics,
undertook a number of skillful maneuvers and attacked the enemy several
times. For example, the Japanese wanted to block the Port Arthur harbor
by sinking their old steamers at the entrance. The flotilla was
accompanied by a cruiser and several destroyers. The Russians guessed
the enemy's intentions, successfully attacked and destroyed the ships.
The prow of one steamer was blown up by a mine. The Japanese were
really taken aback by the insistence of the Russians in taking up the
fight, and the message passed to general Togo was that for once the
enemy had shown resilience and was prepared to do battle.20 The spirits of people in Port
Arthur became high and it is this mood which one can feel through the
print.
The humor lies here in a pun: the Russian word nos means
both the nose of a person and a ship's prow. We see pictures of stunned
Japanese soldiers, fountains of blood flowing out of the holes in their
faces while the noses themselves are lying separately "in Manchuria."
An important element of fun is hidden in the word "nose" itself.
"Sharpening of noses" was an usual comic interlude during the breaks in
drama performances. It included singing, dancing, fighting and laughing
and was very popular among the commoners.21 Vladimir Nabokov, noting the
meaning of the image of "nose" in Gogol's literary works, wrote that
for Gogol as for every Russian the "nose" seems to be comic, something
living quite separately from the person who owns it. It is an element
of the Russian rude carnival humor in general and of the Russian jokes
about the nose in particular. Noses amuse and sadden the Russians.
There are many proverbs and sayings concerning the nose. This word in
Russian is a part of many idiomatic expressions, such as povesit'
nos v unynie meaning "to be discouraged"; ostat'sia s nosom,
"to be duped"; vodit' za nos, "make a fool of someone"; sovat'
nos vo chto-libo, "pry into something"; and uteret' komu-libo
nos, "get the better of somebody."22 Thus, the print actually meant to
say that the Russians made fools of and got the better of the Japanese
who poked their noses into something not their own business, i.e. tried
to fight against the Russian army, but failed.
The print Raeshnik (formerly, a box with moving pictures
the display of which was accompanied with jokes; usually used at fairs)
also pokes fun by playing with the image of "nose" (picture No. 9). A Russian sailor,
Ivan-Lupinos (lit.: "Nose-beater"), is bullying a Japanese by beating
his nose with maps of Europe. In the Russian language the word karty
means both "maps" and "cards." Though the scene literally depicts the
punishment of a card game loser, it expresses the Russian belief that
the Japanese would lose the war, even in spite of the help of their
European "friends." The picture also jeers at the Western allies of
Japan who are now "assisting" Ivan-Lupinos by "holding tough the ears"
of a Japanese soldier.
A common feature of enmification is representation of the enemy as
an animal or as some ugly creature. In picture
No. 10 a handsome Vasia-the-Sailor has the appealing charm of the
so called "open Russian face." He is so smart that he uses the Japanese
shells falling on Port Arthur as a lighter for his pipe. What a
contrast he is to the frail, puny and crooked figure of Admiral Togo
who is begging his Western friends for help. It was also Nabokov who
noticed that for a Russian everyone "frail and puny is a crook."23 Russians, probably,
thought a bit higher of the Englishmen, represented here as a stout and
fat John Bull, than of the Americans: tall but thin Uncle Sam was also
portrayed as sort of a crook.
Russian "popular prints" attempted to convey the idea that the
Japanese would be unable to wage the war without the financial help of
their Western "friends." Indeed, war expenditures were a heavy burden
for the Japanese economy and Japan had to resort to foreign loans. In picture No. 11In Pursuit of Money we
see tiny Japanese soldiers, like a swarm of spiders or cockroaches,
desperately trying to climb up the tall figure of Uncle Sam. The
expression of Uncle Sam's face is angry, a hint that he expected a
quicker and a less costly victory from his little friends. The poem at
the bottom of the picture claims that the Japanese are real swindlers;
they always resort to tricks and conniving which is again contrasted to
the "simple honesty" of Russian fellows. However, unfortunately for
Russians, honesty was not the only quality necessary to win the war.
Russian "popular prints" were so bold and impudent that they dared
to poke fun even at the emperor of Japan as we see in the print A
Clever Wife (picture No. 12). It is
composed of several scenes. In the middle the "Japanese empress" is
scolding her husband for his engagement in war with Russia and banishes
him from her presence (in the right bottom scene). This may be viewed
as a projected image of the Russian imperial family. It was broadly
known that the Czarina Alexandra had the upper hand over her husband
Nicholas II. It is likely that the title is borrowed from one of the
numerous contemporary comedies which made fun of silly husbands who
disobeyed their wives and got into trouble as a result. Both the
"emperor" and the "empress" have Mephistophelian features, the often
"devilish" representation of an enemy. In some other scenes of the
print the Russians compare themselves to a huge bear and an elephant.
The Japanese are running away from the bear in fear and even lose their
white buttoned boots. The stately elephant pays no attention to the
small, noisy pug barking in vain at him, a metaphor for the Russian
attitude towards Japan, which, unfortunately, came to symbolize the
Soviet attitudes towards Japan for many years. The latter image was
borrowed from a famous fable by Ivan Krylov, An Elephant and a Pug,
which obviously added to the print's popularity. It is also of interest
that the word mikado, as the Japanese emperor is called here,
became, in its plural form the mikados, one of the Russian
colloquial pejorative terms for the Japanese.
Another of Krylov's fables was the source of inspiration for the
print A Foolish Frog at Port Arthur (picture
No. 13). The fable tells us about one ambitious frog who wished to
be as large as an ox. By puffing and panting she bellied out and
boasted in front of her friends. The result of her efforts was
miserable. She exhausted herself and burst like a soap-bubble. Here we
see the Russians making fun of the Japanese efforts to catch up with
the Western states and to enlarge the territory of the Japanese empire
by invasion. The frog with a huge belly and funny thin legs is, of
course, Japan, while the ox here means Russia. Friends - to be
understood in this context - are other Asian countries.